Berakhot 007

20:
The unanimity displayed in our mishnah concerning the terminus a quo, the time from when the Shema may be recited at the end of the day, does not extend to the terminus ad quem, the last time for reciting the Evening Shema. Two of the three opinions quoted in the mishnah are based on the understanding of the term b^eshokhb^ekha, "when you lie down". None of the sages give the term the personal interpretation of: "when you, the individual, lie down"; all understand the term to be a general indication, since the "you" of the Shema is Israel, the people. Rabbi Eli'ezer would give the term a rather restricted interpretation: the Shema may be recited during the time period during which most people retire to bed for the night. In the Bet Mikdash the Levitical guard would be changed at the end of the first watch, which was approximately 10 pm. Rabbi Eli'ezer assumes that most people retire for the night before 10 pm: artificial light was expensive, so people retired early and rose early – at first light. Thus, according to Rabbi Eli'ezer, the time for reading the Shema extends from the onset of dark until approximately 10 pm.

To be continued.

Last week I wrote that three medium stars are deemed to be visible when the sun has declined 5.88° below the horizon; three small stars are deemed to be visible when the sun has declined 8.5° below the horizon.

Hillel Gray writes:

I read recently about the evidence regarding which day the New Moon occurs. I think they used witnesses to determine the timing until about 400 C.E. and then used a systematic calendar. How did the determination of the star-rise time evolve? Was it a centralized ruling, like Rosh Chodesh, and then eventually codified? How did they reach the level of scientific certainty, which you cite in #17, and did they have to weigh opposing scientific viewpoints?

I respond:

The present Jewish calendar was made mandatory by the President of the Sanhedrin, Hillel II, in the year 358 CE. Prior to that time the calendar was fixed by actual observation; but the visual evidence was cross-checked against the system of astronomical calculations that was known centuries before then. Those astronomical calculations are still in force today, and still serve us accurately. However, there is no connection between all this and the determination of the onset of dusk. The sages tried to describe the time that lapses between sundown and dusk in terms of "marching-time". The Roman military machine marched at a uniform pace, so it was possible to time events in terms of "the time it takes to march X miles". In more modern times these descriptions were given two main interpretations. Rabbi Elijah, the Gaon of Vilna [Eastern Europe, 18th Century CE], gave a definition that our own observations tell us is far too short. Rabbi Shneour-Zalman of Liady [also Eastern Europe, 18th Century CE], the founder of Lubavitch, gave a definition that seems to accord with our own observations. The definitions he gave have been redefined in terms of the declination of the sun, as I wrote. However, there is no centralized ruling: people who wish to base themselves upon their own observation of the onset of dark are at liberty to do so.

Mark Lehrman writes:

The Shema that I recite before bedtime contained in my siddur (Siddur Sim Shalom) sets forth only the first parashah (i.e., "Shema . . . " through "Ve-ahavta . . ."). Why do we not recite the entire Shema (all three parashot) before bedtime?

I respond:

This is one of the points raised by the Tosafists in their contention that the 'principle' recitation of the Shema is not that recited 'before bedtime' but that recited during the Evening service [see Berakhot 004]. It is very hard to gainsay their conclusions (despite the the Talmud of Eretz-Israel that I quoted in Berakhot 003), in view of the fact that the Gemara [Berakhot 4b-5a] states:

If it were the principle recitation how could anyone be exempted?

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